Contraceptives Essay Example For Students

Contraceptives Essay The practice of birth control preventsconception, thus limiting reproduction. The termbirth control, coined by Margaret SANGER in1914, usually refers specifically to methods ofcontraception, including STERILIZATION. Theterms family planning and planned parenthoodhave a broader application. METHODS OFBIRTH CONTROL Attempts to control fertilityhave been going on for thousands of years. References to preventing conception are found inthe writings of priests, philosophers, andphysicians of ancient Egypt and Greece. Somemethods, though crude, were based on soundideas. For example, women were advised to puthoney, olive oil, or oil of cedar in their vaginas toact as barriers. The stickiness of these substanceswas thought to slow the movement of sperm intothe uterus. Wads of soft wool soaked in lemonjuice or vinegar were used as tampons, in thebelief that they would make the vagina sufficientlyacidic to kill the sperm. The Talmud mentionsusing a piece of sponge to block the cervix, theentrance to the uterus. Sperm Blockage Severalmodern methods of birth control are practiced bycreating a barrier between the sperm and the eggcell. This consists of the use of a chemical foam, acream, or a suppository. Each contains achemical, or spermicide that stops sperm. Theyare not harmful to vaginal tissue. Each must beinserted shortly before COITUS. Foams aresquirted from aerosol con tainers with nozzles orfrom applicators that dispense the correct amountof foam and spread it over the cervix; creams andjellies are squeezed from tubes and held in placeby a diaphragm or other device; andsuppositoriessmall waxy pellets melted by bodyheatare inserted by hand. More effective atkeeping sperm and egg apart are mechanicalbarriers such as the diaphragm and cervical cap(both used with a spermicide), the sponge, and thecondom. A diaphragm is a shallow rubber cup thatis coated with a spermicide and positioned overthe cervix before intercourse. Size is important;women need to have a pelvic examination and geta prescription for the proper diaphragm. Thecervical cap, less than half the size but used in thesame way, has been available worldwide fordecades. It was not popular in the United States,however, and in 1977 it failed to gain approval bythe Food and Drug Administration (FDA); in1988, the FDA again permitted its sale. Thecontraceptive sponge, which keeps its spermidicalp otency for 48 hours after being inserted in thevagina, was approved in 1983. Like thediaphragm and cervical cap, the sponge has anestimated effectiveness rate of about 85%. Thedevices only rarely produce side effects such asirritation and allergic reactions and, very rarely,infections. The condom, a rubber sheath, is rolledonto the erect penis so that sperm, whenejaculated, is trapped but care must be taken sothat the condom does not break or slip off. Afresh condom should be used for each sexual act. Condoms also help protect against the spread ofVENEREAL DISEASES, and, unlike otherbarrier devices, condoms made of latex doprovide some protectionbut notfoolproofprotection against AIDS (see AIDS). Another method of preventing the sperm fromreaching the egg is withdrawal by the man beforeejaculation. This is the oldest technique ofcontraception and, because of the uncertainty ofcontrolling the ejaculation, is considered one of theleast effective. Altering Body Functions Even inancient times, attempts were made to find amedicine that would prevent a womans body fromproducing a baby. Only within the last century,however, have methods been developed thatsuccessfully interrupt the complex reproductivesystem of a womans body. The first attempt,made in the 19th century, was based on a legendthat camel drivers about to go on long journeys inthe desert put pebbles in the wombs of femalecamels to keep them from becoming pregnant. Researchers tried to find something that wouldwork similarly in a womans cervix. The earliestsuch objects were made of metal and were held inby prongs. Later, wire rings were placed beyondthe cervix, in the uterus itself, thus giving rise to theterm intrauterine device, or IUD. IUDs appear towork by altering the necessary environment in theuterus for the fertilized egg. It was only with theintroduction of modern plastics such aspolyethylene, however, that IUDs were widelyaccepted. Their pliability led to simpler insertiontechniques, and they could be left in place untilpregnancy was desired unless a problem arosewith their use. Copper-containing IUDs, and thosethat slowly released the hormone progesterone,had to be replaced periodically. Some users ofIUDs, however, complained increasingly of theside effects of the devices. The most commonproblem was bleeding, and the devices could alsocause uterine infections. More dangerous was thepossible inducement of pelvic inflammatorydisease (s ee UROGENITAL DISEASES), aninfection that may lead to blockage of theFallopian tubes and eventual sterility or an ectopicpregnancy. Studies in the 1980s confirmed thislink with the increased risk of infertility even in theabsence of apparent infections, especially withplastic IUDs. The A. H. Robins Company, inparticular, was ordered in 1987 to set aside nearly$2.5 billion to pay the many thousands of claimsfiled against it by women injured through use of itsDalkon Shield. By that time only a single,progesterone-releasing IUD remained on the U. S. Between The World And Me: Black Body And Cautious Optimism EssayOne vaccine delivers antibodies against a hormonethat plays a crucial role in pregnancy. A secondworks against a hormone in the matrix surroundingthe egg, blocking sperm from penetrating. Maleand unisex oral contraceptives are currently inresearch. SOCIAL ISSUES Birth control, orlimiting reproduction, has become an issue ofmajor importance in the contemporary worldbecause of the problems posed byPOPULATION growth. Until relatively recently,however, most cultures have stressed increasing,rather than reducing, procreation. The Englisheconomist Thomas MALTHUS (1766-1834) wasthe first to warn that the population of the worldwas increasing at a faster rate than its means ofsupport. However, 19th-century reformers whoadvocated birth control as a means of controllingpopulation growth met bitter opposition both fromthe churches and from physicians. The AmericanCharles Knowlton, author of an explicit treatise oncontraception en titled The Fruits of Philosophy(1832), was prosecuted for obscenity, and similarcharges were brought against the free-thinkersAnnie BESANT and Charles Bradlaugh, whodistributed the book in Britain. Nonetheless, themovement persisted, gathering strength at the endof the century from the WOMENS RIGHTSMOVEMENT. In Britain and continental Europe,Malthusian leagues were formed, and the Dutchleague opened the first birth control clinic in 1881. An English clinic was started by Dr. Marie Stopes(1882-1958) in 1921. In the United States,Margaret Sangers first clinic (1916) was closedby the police, but Sanger opened another in 1923. Her National Birth Control League, founded in1915, became the Planned Parenthood Federationof America in 1942 and then, in 1963, the PlannedParenthood-World Population organization. InGRISWOLD V. CONNECTICUT (1965) the U. S. Supreme Court struck down the last statestatute banning contraceptive use for marriedcouples, and in 1972 the Court struck downremaining legal restrictions on birth control forsingle people. The federal government begansystematically to fund family planning programs in1965. Contraceptive assistance was provided tominors without parental consent until Congressruled in 1981 that public health-service clinicsreceiving federal funds must notify parents ofminors for whom contraceptives have beenprescribed. Suits challenging the regulation havebeen upheld; the government has announced plansto appeal. Despite the wide availability ofcontraceptives and birth control information, therate of childbirth among unmarried teenage girlsrose throughout the 1970s and 1980s. A majorfocus of current concern, therefore, is theimprovement of SEX EDUCATION foradolescents. Other countries where the birthcontrol movement has been notably successfulinclude Sweden, the Netherlands, and Britain,where family planning associations early receivedgovernment support; Japan, which has markedlyreduced its birthrate since enacting facilitatinglegislation in 1952; and the Communist countries,which after some fluctuations in policy, nowprovide extensive contraceptive and abortionservices to their inhabitants. Many of the lessdeveloped countries are now promoting birthcontrol programs, supported by technical,educational, and financial assistance from variousUnited Nations agencies and the InternationalPlanned Parenthood Federation. A series ofWorld Population Conferences has sought tostrengthen the focus on population control as amajor international issue. At present the strongestopposition to birth control in the Western worldcomes from the Roman Catholic church, whichcontinues to ban the use of all methods exceptperiodic abstinence. In Third World countriesresistance to birth control programs has arisenfrom both religious and political motives. In India,for example, a country whose population isincreasing at a net rate of 10-13 million a year, thetraditional Hindu emphasis on fertility has impededthe success of the birth control movement. SomeThird World countries continue to encouragepopulation growth for internal economic reasons,and a few radical spokespersons have alleged thatthe international birth control movement isattempting to curtail the population growth ofThird World countries for racist reasons. A similarargument has been heard within the United Stateswith regard to ethnic minorities; the latter,however, voluntarily seek family planning in anequal proportion to nonminorities. Despite sucharguments, most educated individuals andgovernments acknowledge that the health benefitsof regulating fertility and slowing the naturalexpansion of the worlds population are matters ofcritical importance. Louise B. Tyrer, M.D. Bibliography: Belcastro, P. A., The Birth ControlBook (1986); Bullough, Bonnie, Contraception: AGuide to Birth Control Methods (1990); Djerassi,Carl, The Politics of Contraception (1981);Filshie, Marchs, and Guillebaud, John,Contraception: Science and Practice (1989);Gordon, Linda, Womans Body, Womans Right:A Social History of Birth Control in America(1976); Harper, Michael J. K., Birth ControlTechnologies: Prospects by the Year 2000(1983); Kennedy, David M., Birth Control inAmerica: The Career of Margaret Sanger (1970);Knight, James W., and Callahan, Joan C.,Preventing Birth: Contemporary Methods andRelated Moral Controversies (1989); Leathard,Audrey, The Fight for Family Planning (1980);Lieberman, E. J., and Peck, Ellen, Sex and BirthControl: A Guide for the Young, rev. ed. (1981);Loudon, Nancy, and Newton, John, eds.,Handbook of Family Planning (1985); Sutton,Graham, ed., Birth Control Handbook (1980);Zatuchni, G. I., et al., Male Contraception (1986);Zatuchni, G.I., et al., Male Contraception (1986). Human Sexuality